Scientific history

Solar system model was originally fitted to basic astrometry (phases and relative sky position records, with scale by lunar parallax) [Kepler, early 1600's, Newton 1680's]. Distances within the solar system are now tracked by radar and telemetry.

Finite speed of light measured (relative to planetary orbital speeds) from Doppler shift in a signal (Io's stages) from Jupiter [Roemer, 1676] and annual aberration of stellar directions [Bradley, 1720's]. Direct local measurements are now trivial (e.g., modern computers can perform an instruction in a light handspan).

Lab measurements [Cavendish, 1798] of the gravitational constant permit the mass of astronomical bodies to be determined from the scale of orbital motions.

Relative molecular weights, along with the concept that ordinary matter is composed from elementary atoms, were inferred from the integer proportions in which chemicals react [Dalton, ~1805]. Absolute atomic masses (or Boltzmann's constant) were deduced from the behaviour of gasses [Loschmidt, 1865]. (A modern method would be crystal diffraction.)

Stellar parallax is the primary method for determining distance to stars in the nearby regions of the galaxy. [Bessel, 1838; Gaia, 2010's?].

Charge to mass ratios are found by mass spectroscopy, particularly for cathode rays and ions (permitting observation of distinct isotopes) [Thomson, c.1900]. The quantisation of electric charge can be measured directly [Millikan, ~1910].

Penetrating rays (that may trigger photochemical reactions or fluorescence) can be produced by cathode tubes [Roentgen, 1895]. Some substances spontaneously produce radiations [Becquerel, 1896], commonly of three types discernible by mass spectroscopy. The radioactivity process is atomic transmutation [Rutherford 1901; Curie], occurring randomly (to decay exponentially) [Geiger & Rutherford].

The nucleus of the atom was discovered by scattering [Rutherford, 1910].

Relativity [Einstein, 1905 & 1915].

The brightness of standard candles (Cepheid variable stars, having pulsation correlated to luminosity) identified in some extended astronomical objects showed that these are in fact separate galaxies (far more distant than the stars of our milky way galaxy), and furthermore their distance is roughly proportional with red-shift. That is, on the intergalactic scale everything is moving apart (at such a rate as if everything were together around 13 billion years ago) [Hubble, 1920's].

Understanding of life, mainly through fossil record [Darwin, 1859], DNA [1950's] and molecular biology.

Rotation curves, determined from the variation in red-shift across each galaxy, appear inconsistent with the visible distribution of matter (as though the motion of stars were influenced by large halos of invisible mass) [1959]. Gravitational lensing patterns around colliding (clusters of) galaxies appear to demonstrate electromagnetically observable matter becoming well separated from this dark matter [Bullet cluster, 2006].

Very distant standard candles are less red-shifted than would be extrapolated from their faintness, as though the universe is accelerating in its expansion. In General Relativity theory, this equates with the presence of a previously unobserved ("dark") form of energy. [Type Ia Supernovae, 1998]

History

13 billion years ago (Ga)	Beginning of the universe.
5 Ga	Formation of our sun.
600 million years ago (Ma)	Multicellular organisms.
360 Ma	Four limbed vertebrates. At some later point, mammals branch into monotremes, marsupials and placentals. Tree-rodents separate into proto-flying lemurs and primates.
65 Ma	Dinosaur extinction (except birds).
30 Ma	Apes and monkeys part.
10 Ma	Chimpanzees part from other apes.
7 Ma	Other chimpanzees part with us.
4 Ma	Walking upright.
2.5 Ma	Use of stones as crude tools becomes common for East-African proto-humans.
1 Ma	Omnivorous homo-erectus survives more robust-skulled proto-humans, expands from Africa into the east and europe. May control fire.
100,000BC	Anatomically modern humans arise in Africa.
40,000BC	Perhaps grammar? Tools become more complex. Localised cultural artifacts. Stone struck off larger stone for edges. Rope. Compound tools. Axes, needles, fish hooks, net-sinkers. Bows and arrows, darts, woomera, big game hunting begins. Neanderthals disappear. Australia colonised via Indonesia. Trade (nonlocal materials). Some begin to live to old age, becoming wealth of information (menopause?). Art.
9000BC	North and South America colonised via Siberia and Alaska. (World human population of order ten million?)
8000BC	Agriculture originates in near east, but takes over 2000 years to spread north-west. It permits larger population density, development of diseases, desertification.
4000BC	Domesticated sheep, cows, pigs, horses and goats, in Western Eurasia.
3300BC	Wheel.
~2000BC	Bronze age.
500BC	Buddhism founded amidst Hinduism.
~450-320BC	Socrates, with the method for "recalling" new knowledge, and wisdom in professing ignorance. Plato, who thought our senses only convey distorted shadowy instantiations of ideal true forms. Aristotle, reasoned/speculated on the ideal elemental essences, celestial sphere..
330 CE	As the Roman Empire splits, Constantinople made capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Roman empire also becomes Christian.
~500 CE	Western fall of Roman Empire, beginning of the Middle ages (with power dominated by the Catholic church, the remaining outposts of education).
630	Muhammad conquers Mecca, after a series of battles. (Islam will dominate the Middle East, northern Africa, and Indonesia; a quarter of people are Muslim.)
800	Charlemagne crowned emperor, in lead-up to the Holy Roman Empire (932), universities, Catholic/Orthodox schism (1054) and the crusades to retake Jerusalem.
830	Persian Algoritmi fathers algebra, introduces Hindu-Arabic to west (spread around Mediterranean by Fibonacci of Pisa, 1202). This is the time of the Arabic translation movement, House of Wisdom, and the Islamic Golden Age. Alhacen fathers scientific method, 1021.
1350	Black death halves population of Europe. Beginning of Renaissance, in which humanists focus on beauty and individuals and studying the ancients.
1517	Protestant reformation, rejecting papal authority (and leading to separation of church and state). Leonardo da Vinci in Florence, centre of capitalism.
1632	Galileo's controversy (and the writings of Descartes, 1637) contributes to the enlightenment, which advocates reason (and science as distinct from the church) as the legitimate source of authority.